The Multics Operating System Project

Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service) was a time-sharing operating system developed by MIT, Bell Telephone Laboratories, and General Electric Company since 1965 (Saltzer, 1974, pp. 8-24). Multics last known installation was shut in 2000 in Canada.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Multics Operating System Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Features Multics had some unique features. Multics had a program that controlled all hardware elements by relying on â€Å"symmetric multiprocessing, paging, and multiprogramming† features (Multics, 2013, para. 1; Daley and Neumann, 1965, pp. 84-100). The system had virtual memory. The hardware had to change virtual addresses from the CPU into real addresses (Multics, 2013, para. 1). Users could gain access to virtual memory through hierarchical levels by depending on disks, storage and page components. The OS had a segmented memory, which the u ser could interact with directly. In some cases, different processes shared a segment. Every segment had addresses â€Å"consisting of up to 1MB or 0 to 256K words† (Multics, 2013, para. 1). The architect linked â€Å"the file system with the memory access system† (Multics, 2013, para. 1). This allowed others programs to access files by referring to the memory.  Multics also had high standards of language usages. It used PL/I language based on the IBM proposal. The use of high-level language for OS in 1960s was an ambitious approach at the time of Multics development. In addition, the system could support several languages.  The system also used relational database. This was the first commercial relational database in the market. Developers designed a secure system from the start of the project. Its security features earned B2 rating awarded by NCSC of the US government. The OS had online reconfiguration (Schell, 1971, p. 86). The system could run without stopping throughout its lifespan. Users could add or remove some components of the system while it was still running. Such components included CPUs, disk drives, and memory among others. Paul Karger and Roger Schell studied Multics vulnerability and noted that the OS could not meet security requirements in its original form (Karger and Schell, n.d, pp. 1-24; Downey, 1977, p. 45). Thus, it was not suitable for an open multi-level system. On the other hand, these researchers noted that Multics had superior security features than other current systems.Advertising Looking for essay on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They observed that Multics could still work today as a basic Secret or Top Secret system. Multics could also provide a platform in which new systems could rely on to develop advanced secure multi-level systems.  During software engineering processes, the team spent resources in order to create an effective O S (Gedda, 2009, pp. 1-4). They developed and wrote the manual prior to the project implementation. The manual contained details about the system. Multics operated on a high-level language together with different codes, designs, programming, and layering technologies. These aimed at controlling the system complexity. Goals Developers of Multics aimed at creating a convenient system that could offer remote terminal abilities. They wanted to create a system that could operate in analogue manner like electricity and telephone services. The system had different approaches to configuration. These were alterable without the system or user involvement in the process. In addition, developers of Multics wanted to build a system with highly reliable internal files (Multics, 2013, para. 1). The system could support selective processes of sharing information (Saltzer, 1974, pp. 388-402).  Developers of Multics aimed to create â€Å"a hierarchical structure system, which could support informat ion sharing, administrative roles, and decentralized user activities† (Multics, 2013, para. 2; Organick, 1972, p. 74). At the same time, developers strived at building a system that would run on different types of applications. This would allow Multics to support several programming approaches and other external interfaces. Finally, the team wanted to create a system that could change based on unique needs of users and changes in technologies. Impacts and influences on Modern day trends Programmers of Unix operating system had extensive knowledge in the Multics operating system. Influences of Multics are evident in naming of features such as files and segments. However, these two systems had different internal design approaches. Unix aimed at improving some weaknesses in Multics. For instance, Unix wanted to develop a small and simple system in order to reduce the need for many resources. In other words, Unix would operate on limited hardware compared to Multics.  Some schol ars claim that the name Unix, which was initially Unics, originated from Multics. They also argued that the ‘U’ stood for uniplexed rather than the complex Multiplexed of Multics. On this note, critics asserted that Unix developers rejected the complex approach to programming.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Multics Operating System Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Instead, its developers concentrated on a single workable method for small computers. The name reflected a low or a ‘castrated’ form of Multics i.e., the pun was UNICS (Garfinkel and Abelson, 1999, pp. 21-41).  Peter Seibel noted that Ken Thompson referred to Multics as an overdesigned and overbuilt system (Seibel, 2007, p. 449). These qualities almost made the system unusable. MIT and Fernando J. Corbato claimed that the system was a success. However, Ken Thompson believed that Multics failed to achieve its goa ls (Gedda, 2009, pp. 1-4; Seibel, 2007, p. 449). Today, the hierarchical file system and the use of the shell in Multics still have strong influences on programmers because these methods provided simple approaches of replacing other processes while programming. Fernando Corbato believed that the name Multics was serious and suggested the value and goal of the system. In this context, developers did not associate the name with any of the involved organizations. Corbato agreed that Multics and Unix shared a pun of the name Multics (Gedda, 2009, pp. 1-4). Other operating systems with Multics influences Apart from Unix, Multics has also influenced other operating systems. For instance, the Prime Computer operating system (PRIMOS) relied on Multics designs. In addition, the Domain/OS have also used Multics ideologies.  The Stratus VOS operating system had relied on â€Å"Multics to design its internal and external features† (Seibel, 2007, p. 449). For instance, Stratus VOS OS bo rrowed reliability, security, and availability features from Multics. These two projects had some resembling features in reliability, support, and security (Schroeder and Saltzer, 1972, pp. 157-170). Stratus VOS has a direct connection with the Multics, and it remains one of the surviving OS developed from Multics ideologies. The ICL’s VME operating system relied on Multics security features. Such features had the ability to control access to resources at one side of the system. There are also other operating systems, which have borrowed other features from Multics. Overall, Corbato observes that modern computing relies on Multics approaches like â€Å"hierarchical file systems, file access controls, and dynamic linking on demand† (Gedda, 2009, p. 2) in order to develop their operating systems. Corbato notes that the approach of high-level language was rather ambitious at the time of developing Multics. However, he asserts that it was necessary to improve the effective ness of every input in the system. Today, he believes that developers would have picked a simple programming language than the PL/I.Advertising Looking for essay on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Daley, R and Neumann, P. (1965). A General Purpose File System for Secondary Storage. Montvale, N.J: AFIPS Press. Downey, P. (1977). Multics Security Evaluation: Password and File Encryption Techniques. Hanscom AFB, MA: HQ Electronic Systems Division. Garfinkel, S., and Abelson, H. (1999). Architects of the Information Society: Thirty-Five Years of the Laboratory for Computer Science at MIT. Massachusett : MIT Press. Gedda, R. (2009). CIO Blast from the Past: 40 years of Multics, 1969-2009. Web. Karger, P., and Schell, R. (n.d). Multics Security Evaluation: Vulnerability Analysis. Web. Multics. (2013). Web. Organick, I. (1972). The Multics System: An Examination of Its Structure. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Saltzer, H. (1974). Protection and the Control of Information Sharing in Multics. Comm. ACM, 17(7), 388-402. Saltzer, J. (1974). Introduction to Multics. Cambridge: MIT Press. Schell, R. (1971). Dynamic Reconfiguration in a Modular Computer System. Cambridge: MIT Pro ject MAC. Schroeder, D. and Saltzer, J. (1972). A Hardware Architecture for Implementing Protection Rings. Comm. ACM, 15(3), 157-170. Seibel, P. (2007). Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming. New York: APress Publications. 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Understanding Finance Essay Example

Understanding Finance Essay Example Understanding Finance Essay Understanding Finance Essay Finance is the allocation of assets and liabilities over time under conditions of certainty and uncertainty. A key point in finance is the time value of money, which states that a unit of currency today is worth more than the same unit of currency tomorrow. Finance aims to price assets based on their risk level, and expected rate of return. Finance can be broken into three different sub categories: public finance, corporate finance and personal finance. Contents [hide] 1 Areas of finance 1. 1 Personal finance 1. 2 Corporate finance 1. 2. 1 Financial services 1. 3 Public finance 2 Capital 3 Financial theory . 1 Financial economics 3. 2 Financial mathematics 3. 3 Experimental finance 3. 4 Behavioral finance 3. 5 Intangible asset finance 4 Professional qualifications 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Areas of finance[edit] Wall Street, the center of American finance. Personal finance[edit] Main article: Personal finance Questions in personal finance revolve around Protection against unforeseen personal events, as well as events in the wider economy Transference of family across generations (bequests and inheritance) Effects of tax policies (tax subsidies and/or penalties) on management of personal inances Effects of credit on individual financial standing Planning a secure financial future in an environment of economic instability Personal finance may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e. . health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement. Personal Tlnance may also Involve paylng Tor a loan, or aeot ODIlgatlons. I ne SIX Key areas of personal financial planning, as suggested by the Financial Planning Standards Board, are:[l] Financial position: is concerned with understanding the personal resources available y examining net worth and household cash flow. Net wort h is a persons balance sheet, calculated by adding up all assets under that persons control, minus all liabilities of the household, at one point in time. Household cash flow totals up all the expected sources of income within a year, minus all expected expenses within the same year. From this analysis, the financial planner can determine to what degree and in what time the personal goals can be accomplished. Adequate protection: the analysis of how to protect a household from unforeseen risks. These risks can be ivided into liability, property, death, disability, health and long term care. Some of these risks may be self-insurable, while most will require the purchase of an insurance contract. Determining how much insurance to get, at the most cost effective terms requires knowledge of the market for personal insurance. Business owners, professionals, athletes and entertainers require specialized insurance professionals to adequately protect themselves. Since insurance also enjoys some tax benefits, utilizing insurance investment products may be a critical piece of the overall nvestment planning. Tax planning: typically the income tax is the single largest expense in a household. Managing taxes is not a question of if you will pay taxes, but when and how much. Government gives many incentives in the form of tax deductions and credits, which can be used to reduce the lifetime tax burden. Most modern governments use a progressive tax. Typically, as ones income grows, a higher marginal rate of tax must be paid. [citation needed] Understanding how to take advantage of the myriad tax breaks when planning ones personal finances can make a significant impact. Investment and accumulation goals: planning how to accumulate enough money for large purchases and life events is what most people consider to be financial planning. Major reasons to accumulate assets include, purchasing a house or car, starting a business, paying for education expenses, and saving for retirement. Achieving these goals requires projecting what they will cost, and when you need to withdraw funds. A major risk to the household in achieving their accumulation goal is the rate of price increases over time, or inflation. Using net present value calculators, the financial planner will suggest a ombination of asset earmarking and regular savings to be invested in a variety of investments. In order to overcome the rate of inflation, the investment portfolio has to get a higher rate of return, which typically will subject the portfolio to a number of risks. Managing these portfolio risks is most often accomplished using asset allocation, which seeks to diversify investment risk and opportunity. This asset allocation will prescribe a percentage allocation to be invested in stocks, bonds, cash and alternative investments. The allocation should also take into consideration the ersonal risk profile of every investor, since risk attitudes vary from person to person. Retirement planning is the process of understanding how much it costs to live at retirement, and coming up with a plan to distribute assets to meet any income shortfall. Methods for retirement plan include taking advantage of government allowed structures to manage tax llaOlllty Including: Inalvlaual (IRA) structures, or employer sponsored retirement plans. Estate planning involves planning for the disposition of ones assets after death. Typically, there is a tax due to the state or federal government at ones death. Avoiding these taxes means that more of ones assets will be distributed to ones heirs. One can leave ones assets to family, friends or charitable groups. Corporate finance[edit] Main article: Corporate finance Corporate finance is the area of finance dealing with the sources of funding and the capital structure of corporations and the actions that managers take to increase the value of the firm to the shareholders, as well as the tools and analysis used to allocate financial resources. Although it is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial management of all firms, rather than corporations lone, the main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms. Corporate finance generally involves balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entitys wealth and the value of its stock, and generically entails three primary areas of capital resource allocation. In the first, capital budgeting, management must choose which projects (if any) to undertake. The discipline of capital budgeting may employ standard business valuation techniques or even extend to real options valuation; see Financial modeling. The second, sources of capital relates to how these investments are to be funded: investment capital can be provided through different sources, such as by shareholders, in the form of equity (privately or via an initial public offering), creditors, often in the form of bonds, and the firms operations (cash flow). Short-term funding or working capital is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit. The balance between these elements forms the companys capital structure. The third, the dividend policy, requires management to determine whether any unappropriated profit (excess cash) is to be retained for future investment / perational requirements, or instead to be distributed to shareholders, and if so in what form. Short term financial management is often termed working capital management, and relates to cash-, inventory- and debtors management. Corporate finance also includes within its scope business valuation, stock investing, or investment management. An investment is an acquisition of an asset in the hope that it will maintain or increase its value over time. In investment management in choosing a portfolio one has to use financial analysis to determine what, how much and when to invest. To do this, a company must: Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual goals, time horizon, risk aversion and tax considerations; Identify the appropriate strategy: active versus passive hedging strategy Measure the portfolio performance Financial management overlaps with the financial function of the Accounting profession. However, financial accounting is the reporting of historical financial information, while financial management is concerned with the allocation of capital resources to increase a firms value to the shareholders. Hnanclal rlsK management, an element 0T corporate Tlnance, Is tne practlce 0T reating and protecting economic value in a firm by using financial instruments to manage exposure to risk, particularly credit risk and market risk. (Other risk types include Foreign exchange, Shape, Volatility, Sector, liquidity, Inflation risks, etc. It focuses on when and how to hedge using financial instruments; in this sense it overlaps with financial engineering. Similar to general risk management, financial risk management requires identifying its sources, measuring it (see: Risk measure: Well known risk measures), and formulating plans to address these, and can be qualitative nd quantitative. In the banking sector worldwide, the Basel Accords are generally adopted by internationally active b anks for tracking, reporting and exposing operational, credit and market risks. Financial services[edit] Main article: Financial services An entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. Though on the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial ntermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary earns the difference for arranging the loan. A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by usinesses (corporate finance) and by a wide variety of other organizations, including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their institutional setting. Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management and includes analysis related to the use and acquisition of funds for the enterprise. In corporate finance, a companys capital structure is the total mix of financing methods it uses to raise funds. One method is debt financing, which includes bank loans and bond sales. Another method is equity financing the sale of stock by a company to investors, the original shareholders of a share. Ownership of a share gives the shareholder certain contractual rights and powers, which typically include the right to receive declared dividends and to vote the proxy on important matters (e. g. , board elections). The owners of both bonds and stock, may be institutional investors financial institutions such as investment banks and pension funds or private individuals, called private investors or retail investors.

Policy Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Policy Analysis - Research Paper Example Following the implementation of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lifetime blood donor deferral policy (1983) that required all homosexual men who had engaged in sex with a male partner since 1977 not to donate blood, San Jose State University’s president decided to suspend all blood drives that were ongoing at the campus and also those held outside the campus by the official student organizations and those held by employees representing the organization. the blood drive ban came as a result of investigations that had been conducted at the campus following issues of the fairness of the university policy introduced by one of the university’s employees to the campus Office for Equal Rights. The president’s reasoning was that aligning the university’s blood drive policy with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lifetime blood donor deferral policy violated the non-discriminatory policy enacted by the university because it denied homosexuals a chance to donate blood like other students. San Jose State University is a public institution in the policy making process. As such, it plays a key role in society (Verschuere, 2009). The blood drive ban was followed by nationwide reactions immediately. Major media outlets all over the country ran it in their news after picking the story from Associated Press. The blood drive policy received support and criticism from various quarters in the country. Many students and university employees positively commended on the university’s move. A section from the outside community also expressed its satisfaction with the policy stating that it would serve as the beginning point to ensure that discrimination of homosexuals is discouraged in matters such as this. The university and its president also received criticisms following the implementation of the blood drive ban policy. Some students, blood-collecting organizations and a section of the outside community